Counselling and Psychotherapy Essay Example for Free

Counselling and Psychotherapy Essay Carl Ransom Rogers (1902 – 1987) was amongst the most influential figures of humanistic psychology, a school of psychotherapy that rejected medical and psychoanalytic models of treatment, and instead put forth a theory of personality and behaviour that presumed the source of psychological health ultimately resides in the individual person rather than in a programme based on the expert knowledge and authority of a psychiatric professional. Rogers’ specific form of humanistic psychology is broadly based on his view of human personality, which he believed naturally tended to develop in what he considered a healthy manner unless it is adversely influenced by life-experiences. From this theoretical basis, Rogers created a form of therapy that he called ‘client-centred’, (or person-centred) as opposed to forms of treatment that are directed by the expertise of the therapist. In the field of Counselling and Psychotherapy there are many differing theories which are used to help those who seek counselling, including client-centred therapy. In many parts of the world client-centred therapy is seen as a family of therapies, including Experiential Psychotherapy and Focusing. Closely associated with client-centred therapy are existential therapy and various integrative approaches. Since Carl Rogers’ death, there has been much debate regarding what can and cannot rightly claim to be called ‘client-centred therapy.’ Proponents of the differing ‘Tribes’ argue for their schools of thought. (Warner 2006). At the heart of all the differing thoughts and modes of delivery are the six conditions for therapeutic change which Rogers described as being needed before a client could move towards the changes that they wanted to make in their lives. Carl Rogers, along with Abraham Maslow, was the founder of the humanist approach to clinical psychology. Maslow was known as the ‘Third Force in Psychology’ but is mainly known for his thoughts on self- actualization. Prior to Maslow it was thought that human behaviour was just a set of behaviours to satiate the drive for deficits. For example the ‘lack of nutrients feel hungry seek food and eat’ model. Maslow proposed a wide range of human needs in a dynamic and changing system, where needs at higher levels would only be addressed when needs at lower levels had been satisfied (see Fig 1): Rogers person-centred theory emphasised the concept of ‘self-actualization’ which implies that there is an internal, biological force to develop ones capacities and talents to the fullest. The human organism’s central motivation is to learn and to grow. Growth occurs when individuals confront problems, strive to master them and, through experience, endeavour to develop new aspects of their skills, capacities, and views about life, and move forward towards the goal of self-actualization. By way of example, Rogers (1980) often illustrated the concept with reference to organisms in the natural world. He wrote about a potato in the root cellar of his boyhood home: â€Å"The actualizing tendency can, of course, be thwarted or warped, but it cannot be destroyed without destroying the organism. I remember that in my boyhood home, the bin in which we stored our winter’s supply of potatoes was in the basement, several feet below a small window. The conditions were unfavourable, but the potatoes would begin to sprout pale white sprouts, so unlike the healthy green shoots they sent up when planted in the soil in the spring. But these sad, spindly sprouts would grow two or three feet in length as they reached toward the distant light of the window. The sprouts were, in their bizarre, futile growth, a sort of desperate expression of the directional tendency I have been describing. They would never become plants, never mature, never fulfill their real potential. But under the most adverse circumstances, they were striving to become. Life would not give up, even if it could not flourish.† So it can be seen that Rogers was saying that this effective and strong constructive tendency is the underlying basis of the client-centred approach. Rogers groundbreaking understanding was that for a person to be truly helped, the important healing factor is the relationship itself. His view of human behaviour is that it is exquisitely rational Rogers (1961). Furthermore, in his opinion: The core of mans nature is essentially positive Rogers (1961), and he is a trustworthy organism Rogers (1977). Rogers focused on ways in which the therapist could promote certain core conditions between him/herself and the client. Central to his theory was that the actualizing tendency was a natural process, yet in order for each human organism to do so it required the nurturing of a caregiver. Rogers understood that inherently people need people, and that we are fundamentally dependent on others for our being. Many critics of the theory have misunderstood Roger’s concepts and commented that this is outmoded today, and, according to Bohart (2007) the critics were saying that it â€Å"glorifies the individual at the expense of others†. Wilkins (2003) argued that Rogers’ concept of self-actualization is culturally biased, reflecting a Western cultural emphasis on the separate, autonomous individualistic self. However, Bohart states that Rogers’ concept of self as culture-specific is compatible with cultures which view the self in relational rather than individualistic terms, even cultures that have no concept of self. Self-actualization means enhancing or actualizing the self as the self is defined for that person and culture. Rogers did believe that the tendency of actualization of a person in therapy was to always go in a positive pro-social direction, but critics state that it may lead to self-centred, narcissistic behaviour (Bozarth and Brodley, 1991). Rogers recognised that environmental and social factors could inhibit or distort the process of actualization so that a negative rather than positive outcome may occur, but also that the fully functioning person is ‘soundly and realistically social’ (Rogers 1961). Rogers postulated that therapeutic movement will only occur if, and only if, the six conditions for therapeutic change were in place between the therapist and the client. 1. The first condition of client-centred therapy is that therapist and client should be in psychological contact. The first condition specifies that a minimum relationship must exist. Rogers (1957) stated: â€Å"I am hypothesizing that significant positive personality change does not occur except in a relationship†. (Sanders 2006) â€Å"The relationship is not seen as a third object in the room with the counsellor and the client, but is the client and the counsellor. They bring themselves into the room, and in doing so a unique and ever-changing relationship is the result.† Research into contact between animals and people who live in social groups has shown that in order to grow and become confident then it must be in a psychologically interactive way. Those who were deprived of such conditions, like the children in the orphanages of Romania and the monkeys in Harlow’s experiments, grew up with permanent behavioural and emotional problems. (Harlow 1959, Carlson 1999, Bowlby, 1953, Warner 2002). Rogers thought that psychological contact was an all-or-nothing, one-off event, but others like Rose Cameron (2003) and Whelton and Greenberg (2002) see psychological contact as a variable and dynamic quality in relationships, and Margaret Warner (2002:79) says that the â€Å"contact can be viewed as a continuum†. In my opinion, despite the differing views of the various ‘Tribes’, the one over-riding view is that psychological contact is essential if the therapeutic process is going to work. It can simply be the mere recognition of the other person in the room, or a deeply-shared experience between the therapist and the client. 2. Client incongruence, a state of being vulnerable and anxious, is presented as the second of the six conditions which Rogers defined as a ‘discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self-picture of the individual’s experience insofar as it represents that experience’ (Rogers 1957), and which he saw as being necessary for therapy to be successful. Pearson (1974) thought that this condition had created some confusion, since the relationship between incongruence and felt anxiety or vulnerability is complex. All people are incongruent to some degree all of the time (since human beings can never fully symbolize their experience), and some sorts of incongruence may actually lower anxiety. Rogers’ concept of incongruence was simply saying that clients sense that they have underlying issues that have distorted their sense of equilibrium and therefore are motivated to seek counselling. I believe that this second condition affects how clients will respond to counselling because the change that needs to happen has to come from within the client and cannot happen against their will. For example, if someone is referred by a doctor, or school, or made to attend counselling with a spouse or parent, then the client will be in a state of incongruence and the first condition will not take place, without which there is no therapeutic relationship. 3. The third core condition is that the second person, the therapist, is congruent in the relationship. By congruent Rogers understood it to be real, genuine and transparent. As early as 1946 he wrote about the fact that the therapist should have a â€Å"genuine interest in the client†. Rogers makes it very clear in a video on the internet where he is talking about what it means to be congruent when he says: â€Å"Can I be real in the relationship; this has come to have an increasing amount of importance to me over the years. I feel that genuineness is another way of describing the quality I would like to have. I like the term congruence, by which I mean that what I am experiencing inside is present in my awareness and comes out though my communication. In a sense when I have this quality I am all in one piece in the relationship. There is another word that describes it for me; I feel that in the relationship I would like to have transparency. I would be quite willing for my client to see all the way through me and that there would be nothing hidden, and when I’m real in this fashion that I’m trying to describe, I know that my own feelings will often bubble up into awareness and will be expressed, but be expressed in ways that won’t impose themselves on my client.† (You Tube 2010). Despite Rogers’ insistence that being congruent with clients is of paramount importance, a number of studies over the years have shown that no significant relationship exists between levels of congruence and outcomes in the therapeutic relationship (Klein et al 2002, Orlinsky et al 2004, Burckell and Goldried 2006, Feifel and Eells, 1963). In contrast Cooper (2008) has suggested that this may be because it is a ‘high frequency’ event in therapy and therefore the correlation between genuineness and outcome are not truly recognised†. Without an empathetic response from the therapist I believe that the client would not feel valued or understood and the therapeutic relationship would break down. 4. In the development of self-concept Rogers also stated that the fourth condition unconditional positive regard the complete acceptance and support for a person no matter what they say or do is necessary for self-actualization. By showing unconditional positive regard, or prizing, clients are said to feel valued and so accepted and take responsibility for themselves (Rogers 1957:98). Conversely, I believe self-actualization is thwarted by conditional positive regard when acceptance is dependent on the positive or negative evaluation of a persons actions. Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard, Rogers felt, only feel worthy if they match conditions laid down by others – conditions of worth which, in turn, can lead to shaping themselves determined not by their organismic valuing or actualizing tendency, but by a society that may or may not truly have their best interests at heart. 5. The fifth core concept states that the counsellor should experience an empathic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference. Each of us perceives and responds to our environments as a unified and organised whole, and each forms their unique frame of reference. Our understanding of the world is shaped through our experiences, and each time these are interpreted on the basis of our personal value system. In order for a therapist to understand a clients behaviour it should be from the internal frame of reference of the client. Empathy is not just listening but trying to feel the experiences and feelings that the other person has at that moment in time. It involves stepping into their shoes and laying aside one’s own perceptions, values, perspectives and meanings as far as possible. If the therapist attempts to understand the client on the basis of his/her own personal experiences, this would be an external frame of reference. When the therapist remains within the clients frame of reference, which is his/her own understanding of the world, it enhances empathy and promotes unconditional positive regard. Holding an external frame of reference might convey to the client that the therapist has their own agenda or is criticising the client. The question is, would the therapeutic process take place if the counsellor did not enter the client’s world so personally? From the large number of studies that have been carried out in an attempt to measure client’s reaction to the therapist’s empathy, the evidence shows it to be a ‘demonstrably effective element of the therapeutic relationship’ (Steering Committee, 2002). 6. The sixth and final condition client perception is as important as all the others, and is complementary to the idea that the first condition psychological contact is continued. Rogers (1959:213) wrote: ‘that the client perceives, at least to a minimal degree, conditions 4 and 5 the unconditional positive regard of the therapist for the client and the empathetic understanding of the therapist’. To some degree client perception has been ignored over the years. Tudor in 2000 referred to it as â€Å"the lost condition†. Sanders (2004) states that â€Å"Carl Rogers made it clear that the client was the centre of the therapeutic process, and furthermore it was the client who had the final say as to whether the ‘therapist-provided conditions’ were actually provided (as opposed to being assumed by the therapist)†. Dagmar Pescitelli (1996) argues that the theory of client-centred therapy may not be effective for severe psychopathologies such as schizophrenia (deemed to have a strong biological component) or other disorders such as phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or even severe depression (currently effectively treated with drugs and cognitive behavioural therapy, or CBT). Pescitelli (1996) cites one meta-analysis of psychotherapy effectiveness that looked at 400 studies, and person-centred therapy was found least effective. In fact, it was no more effective than the placebo condition (Glass 1983; cited in Krebs Blackman, 1988). In contrast, meta-analyses of client-centred therapy as a whole support the theory that it is an efficacious and effective form of therapy, no matter what ‘Tribe’. It is similar to other orientations such as CBT and psychodynamic therapy, with evidence indicating that all schools may be efficacious for clients with depressive, traumatic, schizophrenic and health related problems, but there is less evidence on the impact of anxiety disorders (Elliott, Greenberg et al., 2004).

The Problem Of Evil Philosophy Essay

The Problem Of Evil Philosophy Essay The Problem of Evil is a provocative philosophical issue that has perplexed the minds of great thinkers throughout the ages up to the present time. Intellectuals such Aristotle, Averroes, and Kant have vigorously debated and held various positions concerning the reality of malevolence in the world and how it correlates to the eminence of a Higher Being, better known as God. Questions such as If God is altogether good, where does evil come from? and Why does God reveal that he is going to punish the wicked if He created them to be that way in the first place? are among literally hundreds of others that have been contemplated in the minds of millions all over the world. The objective of this paper will be to address questions such as the aforementioned, as well as to spotlight an associated dilemma, The True Innate Nature of Man, which quite fittingly arises as a subheading under this broad heading of The Problem of Evil. The True Innate Nature of Man also serves as a quandary for numerous individuals who aspire to comprehend the supposed world beyond sensible perception. This too can be a confounding issue for most students of knowledge, as there are various opinions about what the correct stance of mans nature in relation to Gods is; although some may be deemed as more correct than others. Is it that man was created in the image of God, yet still in a corrupt state of sin due to a crime committed by his alleged father Adam for which he needs redemption, as affirmed by Christian theologians such as Thomas Aquinas? Or is that man is born absolutely pure on the true, bona fide nature of goodness or fitra (in Arabic) but may be tarnished by his environment, as asserted by Islamic metaphysicians such as Avicenna and Averroes? Perhaps it is neither, and man was actually born inherently evil and immoral, but may be trained to do good by following the Tao or Proper Way as is taught by Confucians including Xun Zi, also known as Hsun-tzu. A thorough investigation into the topic of The Problem of Evil and its sub related subject matter, The True Innate Nature of Man, is sure to clear many misconceptions and reveal the fundamentals of the issue. God, as defined by The American Century Dictionary, refers to the creator and ruler of the universe and the being or spirit worshipped as immortal and with supernatural power over nature, human fortunes, etc. As such, due to the postulation that God is the One that creates human beings, bestows on them reason and intelligence, provides for them food and drink, and promises a reward in one way or another for the righteous, while not asking anything from them except that they worship Him alone, the rational mainstream view is that He is a good God. Not only is he just a good God, but He is a perfect God; a God that is absolutely and eternally free from any and all faults and shortcomings of any kind, whether inwardly or outwardly, or deliberately or unintentionally. The supposed problem does arise for the skeptic, however, when this perception of God is applied practically to the sensible world that is filled with crimes such as theft, murder, and rape, as well as diseases including HI V/AIDS, leukemia, and cancer. There seems to be an apparent contradiction in the notion of God being a good God and there being evil in the world. According to the logic of the skeptic, since God created everything from nothing and can be traced back to the origin of everything and identified as the unmoved mover, He must also be accredited with having evil as one of His attributes. In reality, there is no genuine contradiction between the actualities of God being good and there being evil in the world. The misapprehension here stems from the fact that there is confusion in the minds of many with regards to the free will of man and the omniscience of God. Human beings have been created with a choice of whether or not they want to be virtuous upright citizens on earth. Their free will allows them to commit immoral actions if they truly wish to do so. The choices that they have are merely a reflection of the circumstances around them which may or may not be favorable. Nevertheless, they still do have a choice and may opt to do the right thing. The selection to be virtuous or immoral is ultimately made by the human being himself and not by God. Even though God knows any and all things that have already happened or will take place in the future, the choice is left to the person to do as he pleases. The knowledge of God is not to be confused with the deeds of man; th e latter being imperfect, while the former, flawless. Evil actions such as murder and prostitution are thus a result of the imperfections of man and are not to be attributed to God directly because He does not force any of His servants to commit the crime. Rather, He allows them to commit the offenses out of their own desires and in conjunction with His infinite wisdom. As a result, it may be said that since God is the creator of each and every single thing in the universe from nothing, He is also indirectly the creator of evil since even though human beings are directly to blame for the evil perpetrated on earth, He created the human beings to begin with. With that issue being settled, a more complicated one still remains in that of natural diseases, disasters, and occurrences. Part of the reason that diseases such as HIV/AIDS and cancer infect people is because of their refusal to act in a prudent and temperate manner. Before proceeding, however, it is necessary to explain what this virtue of temperance is and how it should apply in human beings day to day life: The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines temperance as a habitual moderation in the indulgence of the appetites or passions. The ancient, as well as contemporary scholars of philosophy such as Thomas Aquinas, Stephen Pope, and Diana Cates generally seem to agree with this definition by consensus on a broad level. It is located in the concupiscible appetite, which deals primarily with the human lusts of eating, drinking and sexual desire; as opposed to the irascible appetite that is involved in the emotions of anger and exasperation. As Thomas Aquinas indicates in Summa Theologica IIa IIae, q. 141, a. 2, ad 2, temperance is a habit of responding with tranquility or serenity of soul to sense impressions of food, drink, and sexual relations. Its principal function is to moderate in the mean between extremes the emotions of enjoyments and service concerning the pleasures of touch and taste in order to achieve the good of reason as known in the concupiscible passions. Furthermore, it is con cerned with the sentiment of maintaining the gratification of sense pleasure as a whole, especially in the elation supplementing the impression of predominantly touch and secondarily taste. The ideal balance of temperance is generally found between the excess extreme of indulgence and the defect extreme of insensibility, while leaning slightly towards insensibility in this respect. Since the human species has an overwhelming innate desire for excess with regards to the pleasures of the flesh, it is only natural that most people seek to avoid this excess, and lean towards the defect while seeking to uphold the integrity of moral standards. The proximate object of temperance is the concupiscible appetite; pleasure on a general level, and contentment and grief more specifically. The remote object of this cardinal virtue is anything and everything that generates the gratification of touch and taste in an individual person; that is to say, food, drink, and sex. Through habitual moderation of temperance, as with any other virtue, the good of reason can be achieved in this regard. (Introduction to Ethics by John A. Osterle) It is clear from this brief introduction to temperance that this is a most serious issue that many people are heedless of. Moderation in deeds, particularly those of the sexual nature, preserves the wellbeing of individuals while an excess leads to their ruin. HIV/AIDS is the direct cause of the choice of human beings to be promiscuous in their sexual activities or act in some other carnal manner. God should not be held liable for the intemperate and depraved actions of human beings. Similarly, the diseases of certain types of cancers such as lung cancer and other ailments of the kidneys and such are usually the result of the choices of man to smoke sedatives or drink alcohol. Even though man has knowledge of the fact that these items have harmful effects on their wellbeing, he still chooses to willingly purchase and utilize them anyway; not only damaging ones self, but paying money to do so as well! The evil result of these diseases is brought upon only from the intemperate and male volent actions of man. While God did indeed create these types of diseases, He undoubtedly cannot be attributed as being the direct cause of someone acquiring them, as He does not force anyone to take the means to obtain these diseases even though He has perfect knowledge of the unfortunate individuals who will. The final type of alleged evil that occurs in the world which some people mistakenly attribute directly to God is that of natural disasters or occurrences such as earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, inherited diseases (both mental and physical), and the like that result in casualties. With regards to this type of evil, there is no clear cut definitive answer and it must be accepted that since God is described as All-Wise, there is wisdom behind all of these perceived tragedies. To explain, the perception of human beings is deficient, while Gods knowledge and wisdom are perfect. Even the greatest of metaphysicians such as Aristotle and Plato attested to this actuality. It would be irrational to try and prove that God creates evil through these calamities because human beings do not know the wisdom behind these occurrences. The truth of the matter is that there is actually much good behind these perceived dreadful and appalling incidents. A case in point example which may be likened to the understanding of this concept of the perception of natural disasters by human beings is that of when a parent accompanies his or her young child to the doctors office to obtain a flu vaccination from the doctor. The young child would be shocked at the fact that his parent would allow a person to thrust a six inch needle into his arm. The child does not have the foresight to understand that this is what is best and most beneficial for him; his perception of the action leads him to believe that this is a malicious undertaking being committed. However, it is apparent to any logical person that the good of this action by the doctor far outweighs any temporary harm that the needle may have been caused to the youth. Accordingly, this action would not be deemed an evil act. On the contrary, this action would be considered virtuous and very much necessary, even though the child might not agree at this point in his development. Similarly, since all human beings are mortal and vastly dis similar to God in that they are neither All-Wise nor Omniscient, they do not have the foresight that God does. Therefore, it would be extremely rash for them to label something as evil even though they do not understand the very core foundation of it. The good of these so-called natural disasters is evidently there, even if people do not have the perception to sense or understand it. A sub-related theme to The Problem of Evil is known as The True Innate Nature of Man. The genuine natural disposition of human beings is essential to understanding The Problem of Evil because if it can be proven that the mans natural disposition is one that is towards righteousness, this would also strengthen the argument in favor of the proposition that there is no valid Problem of Evil. Since the creation often reflects the creator, a legitimately good concept of the internal disposition of man would indicate an eternally good God, while an evil concept of the internal disposition of man would suggest some legitimacy to the Problem of Evil. Basically, the two main views with regards to The True Innate Nature of Man are that it is either one of vice and iniquity or it is one of morality and virtue. Scholars have rigorously debated this topic with great diligence in order to persuade the masses of people to see things from their perspective. The vast majority of religious scholars, h owever, have settled upon the notion that man is born virtuous, but with the ability to perform evil. The reasons for this view are abundant and not difficult to comprehend. Another view held by some of the scholars is that man is born inherently evil, but may be trained to do virtuous deeds. Attempting to explain and refute this view would certainly be much more remarkable, as the vast majority of people are oblivious to the arguments presented by the philosophers for this view and whether or not they actually carry any weight. One such unorthodox philosophical intellectual who believed that The True Innate Nature of Man is evil was a Confucian by the name of Xun Zi, better known as Hsun-tzu. He held the belief that all human beings are born inherently evil by nature. According to him, human beings must be trained thoroughly in order to become virtuous. Goodness is acquired by learning and cultivation from the sages. He puts a great deal of emphasis on the sages and regarded learning from these sages as an essential aspect in an individuals journey towards righteousness. Furthermore, Hsun-tzu made a clear distinction between nature and conscious activity. Whereas the nature of humans is the characteristics they are born with (i.e. natural instincts) and can never be changed or controlled, conscious activity is something that can be learned and taught by the sages; this is the part of man than can be changed and acquired through learning and effort. In order to support these various claims, Hsun-tzu also lai d down several arguments so that he could expound his bold stance on this issue. His foremost argument to support his claims is the notion that if a ruler did not have any limits or rules to abide by, then he would be unjust to his subjects beneath him. A different argument he uses is that the sage kings and ritual principles recognized that man was born evil, and hence, had to train the common man so that he would be good. Yet another argument presented was the assertion that people are born with intrinsic desires naturally in them, and these desires are never-ending. Clearly, Hsun-tzu is one of the greatest philosophers ever known to hold the view that human beings are born evil, but his arguments for this are questionable at best. Hsun-tzus primary argument for deeming the human nature of man to be evil is his allegation that the people underneath a ruler would be treated unjustly if he did not have any limits to his power. If the entire world were to function this way, there would be immense commotion and disarray. Similarly, if a man did not have any rules to live by, he would also be corrupt and evil. Conscious activity would be needed to show any goodness, and the leaders natural inclination would be towards evil. Therefore, the sage kings are needed so that a person can be transformed from the person he is born as into a moral individual that can eventually be able to honorably lead an entire nation. It may contended, though, that while it is true that a person needs to have some kind of formal training in order to be a just leader, the sage kings and Confucianism in general are not always required. This occurrence has undoubtedly taken place in many parts of the world. Authoritative rulers such as dictators tend to abuse their powers more than democratically elected officials do. This has always been the case throughout history. Since dictators are given much more power than elected individuals, they tend to oppress their citizens more as well. On the other hand, le aders that are given less power, such as the ones in most of the Western world, have a less chance to of becoming tyrannical and obsessed with power. The citizens of these Western countries are more easily able to prevent corruption in the government when it takes place. However, there are exceptions to this argument proposed by Hsun-tzu. There have been instances in history where dictators have not had a repressive stance towards their people. Leaders such as Napoleon Bonaparte and Mustafa Kemal Ataturk have been classified by historians as treating their people with dignity and respect. These dictators, as well as others, did not abuse their powers even though they were never trained by the sage kings or even followed the Tao. While Hsun-tzu may argue that the dictators of recent centuries do not have unlimited power, it should be noted that they still have enough to be able to oppress the masses of people in their country and still get away with it. Perhaps following the Tao woul d help improve upon the leadership performance of many of todays heads of states, but this remains to be seen. Hsun- tzus argument that leaders would be unjust if no limitations were placed upon them is an unpersuasive one, as there are still some flaws in it which need to be addressed. Another of Hsun-tzus foremost arguments regarding the True Innate Nature of Man as evil is the affirmation that the sage kings of ancient times were aware of the fact that man was born inherently evil, and thus, they had to train the common man so that he would be good. By the use of ritual principles and setting guidelines and punishments for the individuals actions, a person is refined from his original malevolent nature into a more honorable and virtuous individual. This person then must continually practice Confucianism and the Tao and continually strive to become a better person. According to Hsun-tzu, there would be absolutely no need for sages if the people were naturally born righteous. Logic would hold that this view is vastly constricted. Hsun-tzu is thinking only from the point of view of a Confucian. If a person does not want to follow the Tao or Confucian way or life, then it becomes impossible for this person to develop into a state of goodness. Furthermore, Hsun-tzu is assuming that the sage kings are good people and able to cultivate others just because they are sages, but if they are not known as such in the community, does that make them any less wise or less competent in terms of teaching others about how to become righteous people? Just because a person known as a sage decides something to be correct, doesnt make it so. The sages arent the only morally good people in the world. People in todays society can be known as righteous, and many of them have never even heard about the Tao. The conclusion that Hsun-tzu seems to be drawing is that the fact that there are sages is proof that human beings are intrinsically inclined towards evil. This is illogical because he is basing his whole argument on what some people during the ancient times decided upon. There are people in todays society that do not follow the way of the sage kings and ritual principles, and can still be considered to be moral, righteous beings. This argument of Hsun-tzus may have been true during his time, but definitely not today. The fact that the sages teach humans to be good is not evidence that they are evil. On the contrary, this can go to show just how good humans actually are in their quest to improve their virtuosity from when they are born until they die. Conclusively, a final argument of Hsun-tzus is that human beings are born with intrinsic desires naturally in them, and these desires are endless. No matter how often these desires or natural impulses are acted upon, human beings are never satisfied and will always strive to satisfy these desires, though they can be contained by following the Tao and learning from the sages. Goodness is not natural to people; conscious activity is required to reach a certain level of virtuousness. According to Hsun-tzu, this is proof that people are naturally born evil and must learn to be good. This view of Hsun-tzus is a flawed one because it actually can be proven that goodness is natural to people. An example of this is when human beings deal with infants. Even the most hardened criminals in jail seem to show an exceptional amount of mercy and compassion when dealing with babies and little children. This shows that there is a quantity of good in all human beings that can come out when the circums tances are right. It is definitely true that humans have innate carnal desired similar to those which animals have. In spite of this, humans can be classified of being moral or immoral, while animals cannot. The intelligence of human beings is the aspect that separates them from animals and allows them to be judged according to their respective actions. This same intelligence that people possess causes them to learn to distinguish between what is right and wrong. If peoples psyche can be honed so that they can easily perceive malevolence and righteousness and act accordingly, they can undoubtedly become better human beings. This means that according to this logic, the true nature of human beings must be virtuous because there is an amount of good in the human, however small, that can be honed and cultivated. If humans continually give in to all of their desires like most species of animals do, they will eventually be overcome by them and be deemed immoral by society. Since people are naturally not adept at containing many of our societys taboo desires, they must learn to do so from experienced people such as the sages. Consequently, people will learn how to contain their infinite desires, and over time it will become like second nature for regular people as it has already become for the sage kings. This argument of Hsun-tzus can definitely be deemed as an adequate one, but still not sufficient to prove that human beings are inherently evil. Human beings have to greatly strive in order to stop themselves from acting upon these instincts, so this must mean that they have to continue to consciously act to become virtuous, and goodness is something natural and feasible if one tries hard enough. Clearly, the debate on whether mans intrinsic nature is truly virtuous or immoral is a highly controversial one that many people have strong opinions on and tend to disagree about. The Confucian philosopher Hsun-tzu was of the opinion that human beings are born naturally evil and must be thoroughly trained in order to become good people. He further believed that man is born with natural inclinations towards profit, envy, hatred and desire and if left unattended, these mere inclinations can transform into attributes of strife, violence, crime, and wantonness. However, he also believed that there is no limit to how righteous an individual can become, but true goodness must be attained through thorough and continual learning and cultivation from the sages. Anybody and everybody can become virtuous, although not just anyone can reach the moral level of a sage. The key is to follow Confucianism, the Tao, and learning from the sages. Learning is the most essential concept in an individuals path towards righteousness. Hsun-tzu also made an apparent distinction between nature and conscious activity. By conscious activity and learning from the sages, and following the Confucian rites rigorously, he can transform himself into a morally good person. To further expand on his views, Hsun-tzu presented a number of arguments to convince the masses of people to see things from his perspective. Firstly, he felt that if a ruler is not subject to any limits or rules, then he would be unjust to his the citizens beneath him. This assertion is true sometimes, but not always. There have been exceptions throughout history that contradict this theory. Another argument he proposes is that the sage kings with their ritual principles took notice that people were born evil, and as a result, had to teach the common men so that they would be good. This logic may be deemed as flawed because it took place during th e ancient times and may not be applicable today or even true for that matter, as many individuals would strongly disagree with this claim. The final and most reasonable, although unsound, argument presented by Hsun-tzu is the contention that human beings are born with intrinsic desires naturally in them, and these desires are endless. These desires are never to be completely satisfied no matter how much a person tries to satisfy them. However, they can be controlled through learning from the sages and following the Tao, which is to be in harmony with the laws of heaven. Clearly, there are various positions that can be taken with regards to the true nature of man and Hsun-tzu was of the opinion that human nature is evil. This is a rather ineffectual view, as it can be easily disproven by the use of logic in examining the arguments he presents. The Problem of Evil is a subject matter of philosophy that has been around since the first days of scholarly discussion. The metaphysicians have held various positions on it with the correct position being that there is no real Problem of Evil, but only an apparent misunderstanding of what evil actually is and how it takes place. God may be seemed as the creator of evil in the sense that He is the creator of each and every single thing in the universe out of nothing. In spite of this, He is not the direct reason that evil continually comes into existence, but rather it is due to the actions of human beings and their misjudgments of what the accurate perception of good is that the evil comes to be. Hence, God is indirectly the cause of evil, while man is the direct cause. As for the natural disasters and occurrences such as floods or diseases that happen on earth, there is the perception of evil by human beings but actually there is good in all of these happenings. The All-Wise and Omniscient God is far above what any human being can ever imagine or become, so it is only logical that the humans perception has some weaknesses and shortcomings in it, while Gods does not. This can be likened to a baby in front of its parents; the parents know what is good for the baby while the baby does not even really know what is good for its self. Likewise, God knows what is good for the human beings while the human beings, even though they may think they know, do not unquestionably know what is right or wrong for themselves. As one can clearly see, due to the cumulative evidence provided, The Problem of Evil is not really a problem at all and may be accounted for if a person uses logic and reason to try and contemplate over the nature and characteristics of God. The Innate Nature of Man, as proven earlier, is not inherently evil and thus, by default, should be inherently good. Hopefully, in the future, people will begin to realize these realities so that they can cease to blame others, such as God, for their shortcomings and live up to their respective natures as being citizens with a natural propensity towards goodness and excellence in conduct.

Essay --

People relate to landscapes through tactile and visual experience of surfaces around them, beneath their feet and in their hands. Textures are most immediate and close physical contact with the landscape. Ploughing, grazing, clearance – create distinctive textures of surface, some of them deliberately created for the properties of the texture itself. Textures incorporate time; they are result of a slow but constant change of the very texture of surface. Mundane practices which might have a minimum impact on the surface can in a long term combine to form a distinctive textures. Aerial photographs and high resolution topographic data is full of textures. We tend to ignore them and focus solely on "features", traces. What can we do with textures? How can they be harnessed for deciphering the biography of surfaces and the way people interacted with the land in close physical contact? In the modern, Western, world the visual sense has primacy over the other senses. Since sixteenth century, vision has become increasingly important in how we engage with and understand our world, with the other senses marginalised. The visual became considered the most reliable form of representation. Archaeology, and especially aerial archaeology, has come to rely almost solely on vision for both the collection of data and the dissemination of information. Visual sense turns us into spectators, detached and distanced from the object of study. Landscape becomes a particular way of seeing and representing the world from an elevated, detached and even ‘objective’ vantage point, --- as an artistic genre and a culturally conditioned habit of visual perception, unique to European, Western societies. In this way visual technologies (photographs,... ...worth exploring. Textures offer access into the richness and immediacy of the perceivable world and allow us to enmesh with it. When we turn the eye in the organ of touch, we are able to see the â€Å"stuff† of landscape rather than its â€Å"things.† It is highly subjective, embodied view of the world, but one that helps us to "understands materiality" of the landscape. Dwelling in the landscape is about the rich intimate, ongoing â€Å"togetherness† of beings and things which make up textures and which, over time, bind together nature and culture. Textures blur the nature/culture divide and emphasise the material and temporal nature of landscape. In this way, landscape is a never finished process of weaving, â€Å"entanglement", of materials and activities. And they can perhaps to help us to reflect what we really see when we interpret aerophotos and lidar imagery.

Harper Lees To Kill a Mockingbird Essay -- To Kill a Mockingbird Essay

Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird To Kill a Mockingbird, both as a novel and as a film, shows how time can change the way society views the importance of certain issues, such as racism. Because it was written during the civil rights movement, many people protested against it for conveying issues of prejudice between the north and the south. However, after time, the novel gradually became accepted. It is now a world-renowned classic, and it has won the Pulitzer Prize, as well as having made its way to the big screen. The author, Harper Lee, sets the story in a small town in Alabama. The narrator is a 9-year-old tomboy, whose father was a widowed lawyer. Herbert Mitgang wrote in the New York Times on July 13, 1960: The author eases the reader into the life of the town with warmth and good humor. The reader builds what the children call a Negro ?snowman;? rolls crazily down the street in a somersaulting old tire; sits in a consolidated classroom in a hilarious scene where the backcountry kids unhinge a teacher from an alien ?north? county of Alabama. The children?s phrases, the slang of Southern poor white and Negro, and the language of the more educated people have a regional charm. Mitgang tells us that the novel is about the life of two children who live in a small town, where they deal with racism in society. Prejudice surrounds their childhood, and it lurks with them while they are playing, and even while they are in the classroom. Mitgang tells us that on top of all this, racism is conveyed in the children?s language. Writer Jane Kansas created a website dedicated to To Kill a Mockingbird. She covers areas such as the novel, the film, events, reviews, interviews, and a biography of Harper Lee. According to ... ...1963. Schumach, Murray. ?Prize for Novel Elates Film Pair.? New York Times 19 May 1961, 26. Snyder, Steven. Rev. of To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. Zertinet Movies. 01 Nov. 2005. < http://movies.zertinet.com/2002/toki/tokillamockingbird.htm>. Stratton, Jerry. Rev. of To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. FireBlade Book Review.8 Sept. 2002. 26 October 2005. < http://www.hoboes.com/html/FireBlade/Books/Mockingbird.shtml>. Neary, Lynn. Talk of the Nation. NPR . Oct. 2002. 01 Nov. 2005. < http://www.npr.org/programs/totn/features/2002/oct/books/>. Tubelle, Larry. Rev. of To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. Variety 100 12 Dec. 1962. 4 Nov. 2005 . Weinberg, Scott. Rev. of To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. Rotten Tomatoes.17 Sept. 2005. 20 Oct. 2005. < http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/to_kill_a_mockingbird/?sortby=date&critic=columns>.

George Washington Carver :: essays research papers

George Washington Carver was born near Diamond Grove, Missouri in 1864 on a plantation owned by a slave owner. His father, Moses Carver, and his mother, Susan Carver, were slaves on that plantation. As a young infant, George along with his mother was kidnapped by Confederate night raiders and was taken to Arkansas to be sold into slavery. Moses Carver‘s owner searched for George and finally found him and reclaimed him, but his mother was already sold. The man who owned George at the time didn’t want to give George back, so Moses’ owner traded a horse for the boy. George was given back to his father suffering from a terrible case of whooping cough, and ended up with a noticeable stutter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Back on his father’s owner’s plantation, George was now too sick to work out in the fields, so he mainly worked indoors. He helped around the kitchen and in a small garden. It was the garden that George came to love the most. He was often called “The Plant Doctor'; because of his love of plants.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the Civil War, George was set free at the age of 10. Once he was free, George set out to get an education. While trying to overcome many frustrating and bitter obstacles, George finally made his way through high school. George went to school until the age of 30, but his age didn’t stop him from finding more education. George tried applying to many colleges and all of those attempts failed. George almost gave up until Simpson College in Indianola, Iowa finally accepted him as a freshman.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To support himself through college, George had odd jobs such as ironing and washing the clothes of his fellow and more fortunate classmates. In 1891, George was transferred to Iowa State College of Agriculture, which is now Iowa State University. It was there that George became the first African American to get a Bachelor’s Degree and a Masters Degree in bacterial botany and agriculture. After his graduation, George started teaching classes about agriculture and chemurgy. In 1897, Booker T. Washington, the founder of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro’s, convinced George to come there and serve as the director of agriculture. It was at this Institute that George made many discoveries that led to many of his inventions. He would grow plants such as sweet potatoes, peanuts, and soybeans and then do experiments with them.

Community Health Nursing Essay

As a registered nurse of only three years, I am often referred to by my peers as a â€Å"baby† nurse. However, in those short three years of practice I have learned and continue to learn many things whether medical, personal, or humanitarian. My personal nursing experience has been in surgical care services. The vast majority of the patients I have cared for are those undergoing elective procedures. They have chosen to have joint arthroplasty or some other type of procedure. I have also had the great fortune to care for those who have been diagnosed with terminal illnesses such as cancer and leukemia. Many times I see these patients in the infancy of their disease process, but I also see them on a continue basis during treatments such as blood or platelet transfusions. The difficulties faced by patient s such as these are varied and bring with each a different set of needs to be assessed and addressed. You become not just a nurse but a caregiver, advocate, therapist, and more often than not a friend. It is when working with these patients that the dynamics of quality versus quantity of life become central to care. In many cases family concerns, whether well meaning or not, may overshadow the patient’s wishes. Our selfish need to keep loved ones with us can blur the line as to the patient’s own wants and needs. In dealing with this you must also assess your own beliefs as to end of life decisions. My role as a nurse must be to advocate for my patient, to develop trust in the relationship, and to follow through with their wishes. All the while promoting compassion in our interactions,  In this case scenario, there are three strategies in which I would implement to address Mrs. Thomas as a patient. After assessing the patient and her situation referrals should be made for therapy modalities both physical and occupational, home health, and psychological/mental health for both Mrs. Thomas and her spouse/caregiver. Physical and occupational therapy could evaluate Mrs. Thomas and initiate a plan of treatment to increase stamina and range of motion to keep the patient at an optimum level of functioning. Physical improvement even in small increments can have a positive effect on the patient’s outlook. Home health could evaluate Mrs. Thomas and her need for pain control as well as her fear of dependency. Education at this juncture is imperative to patient outlook as well as outcome of treatments. With pain management in place, physical therapy could progress, thus increasing the level of patient participation. Also a mental health/psychological referral could be invaluable to both Mr. and Mrs. Thomas. Mrs. Thomas could be assisted in working through and understanding the stages of her illness, as well as her depression and sadness concerning her family relationships. It could also help Mr. Thomas with his depression and allow them both to connect with support groups or individuals within the community with whom they can share experiences. One of the best resources for breast cancer patients is the Susan B. Komen Foundation. As a certified breast cancer educator, I have had the pleasure of working with both survivors and their families. Education is very important to all concerned in a medical diagnosis of breast cancer. Understanding of the disease process and its effects are also essential to a healthy outlook. The Komen Foundation offers support to patients, survivors, caregivers, and family members. It would be an excellent resource in which both Mr. and Mrs. Thomas could receive individualized treatment and support. The team approach is also necessary for working with patients, families, and caregivers. As a nurse you must accept that an individual cannot meet all patient needs so you draw upon other health care professional s to accomplish the highest levels of care. A wide variety of team members can be utilized in the care of the Thomas’. Physicians who offer direct clinical care and disease pathologies, social workers/clinical case managers who can assist in community resources as well as their knowledge of insurances, spiritual leaders to aide in dealing with final decisions and spiritual needs of the patient and family, pharmacists  who assist with a wide array of pharmacological treatments for pain and symptom control, dieticians can be helpful in counseling with meals, nutrition, supplements, and hydration. Other team members may include physical and occupational therapy, psychologists, and perhaps even volunteers to assist in the home and with errands. The needs of Mrs. Thomas and her family will continue to fluctuate as her disease progresses. It is important for the team to stay abreast of these needs and adjust plans of care accordingly. At some point hospice services may be called upon and continued through death. This can be provided at home or on an inpatient basis. Initiating a plan of action can alleviate stress from both the Thomas’. Mr. Thomas may feel that some of the caregiver burden has been lifted and this could aid in the treatment of his depression. This in combination with medication could be the keys to initiating successful treatment. If a psychological evaluation is needed due to the possibility of suicidal ideations, then immediate intervention is warranted with a crisis facility. Especially if there is deemed eminent danger of self harm. With pieces of the clinical puzzle in place, the Thomas’ can be assisted with as much compassion, dignity, and support as possible to meet their needs in both the short and long term.

Legal Issues in Gaming Industry Essay

When it comes to looking at the legal issues, we can that there are loads of them. The cause of legal issues rise when a specific games company copies other people’s work or they take what other games without permission. An example of such issue is when the Arktos Entertainment Group, who are the makers of MMO The War Z game, were found to have copied the terms of service agreement from the game, League of Legends. And as crazy this may sound, but another huge legal issue to fall upon the gaming industry when JUSTIN BIEBER filed a lawsuit against a company who develops Android Smartphones called RC3. All this hassle was because RC3 created a video game called Joustin’ Beaver, which parodied Justin Bieber. Another legal issue is copyright. Such incident happened between Nova Productions and Mazooma Games. The reason is because Nova sued Mazooma for copying elements from their games.. Jackpot Pool and Trick Shot. Regulatory Issues in Games. Regulatory Issues Seen as more and more games are getting violent and the no. of people who play them and commit crimes are slightly increasing, those violent video games have been rated in specific way. The first ever game to be rated this way was Mortal Kombat. It was one of the first ever games to have extreme graphic violence such, huge amounts of blood, people being ripped into half etc. The public found it so inappropriate that they rated it a Mature. It means the game is only to be purchased or played by a person who 17 or older. This is to stop anyone under that age from playing the game and having a bad influence. The ratings are as follows: In the UK the games are being rated by PEGI. The ratings are as follows: Ethical Issues in Video Games. Year after year, new games are released with even more improved visuals and game play than the previous selection of video games. But, in some games, better visuals and game play isn’t the only thing to be added into the game. The game is also loaded with ethical issues. Here are some famous video games and the ethical issues that creep in them. Resident Evil 5 – High number of racial stereotyping and abuse: In the game, there features a white male killing black enemies, who lives in a small African village. Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas – Prostitution, Drug dealing, Racist stereotyping: Including an African American person as the main character and the first mission being to steal a bike. Mortal Kombat – Extreme graphic violence